Communication Career Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Communication Career - Research Paper Example Communication career requires a bachelor’s degree in Arts and other related fields. Bachelors’ degree is the relevant entry requirement for this career because the work involves design and analysis of the social aspects. The analytical work conducted by the communication professional dictates the above requirement. It is notable that design projects require adequate information, which is best covered at the bachelor’s level. In addition, the communication industry contemporary progresses in social economic aspects to develop strategies that would promote social development. Most modern trends observable today tend to demand educational qualification alongside the experience that a person has. My aspiration in the field largely depends on my ability to achieve the essential education requirement. The subject combination necessary for the bachelor degree in communication is as follows: A-level which majors in linguistics, history, and social studies. The typical starting salary for communication workers is $ 13.56 per hour. This salary is considered high owing to the fact that the employee is a fresh graduate without work experience. The demand for experience is a common trend in the labor market. However, the preferences are given to this career and the communication training at the bachelors’ level enables new recruits to serve while preparing for higher cadre. Records on the communication industry indicate that occupation practices such as job training do apply in the industry. In addition, demand for experience before assuming the job is not a major factor considered at the entry level.

Anthropology of Marxists, Marxians, and Marxish Essay

Anthropology of Marxists, Marxians, and Marxish - Essay Example The Hegelian system formulated the idea of self-consciousness that derived secular terms such as ‘the man’. This term created religious conceptions that characterized what would be a moral man whose basis drew from moral, political, theological among a list of other traits. In this text, Rosas as Marxian criticizes the way in which people along the Mexican border cannot be free to roam around their nation because of the intensified border patrols mounted by the USA in this territory. Essentially, when Rosas speaks to some Mexicans they tell him that they are only free when they live in the sewer lines that connect the USA and Mexico, which is basically an effect of capitalism. In most cases, those that seek to go to the USA to seek better opportunities opt to use the sewer line that connects the states of Sonora and Arizona, for the fear of being subjected to humiliating checks at the border (Rosas 2). Most of them attract the stereotype that they could be drug peddlers, which most might not be the case hence making it hard for them to access or receive US citizenship, which is a social conflict that Rosas seeks to address. Here, Foucault argues that subjects that fell under an individual in power had no option but to put their lives at risk for this person because what mattered was him to maintain his authority without caring about what would happen to them. Foucault criticizes ‘the right under the power of life and death’ because this meant those in power had the authority to take life as well as this was the law. The argument embedded here is that the western powers have borrowed from this archaic law that was applicable especially in Rome by introducing ‘deduction’, which encompasses incitement, bossing around, control and optimization among a list of other traits as elements of being in power (Foucault Michel 79).

Non-orthogonal Multiple Access and Massive MIMO

Non-orthogonal Multiple Access and Massive MIMO Non-orthogonal Multiple Access and Massive MIMO for Improved Spectrum Efficiency To cope with the expected 1000x increase in mobile traffic over the next 10 years, key requirements are making more efficient use of the available frequency spectrum, increasing network speeds and opening-up more of the frequency spectrum for wireless applications. OFDMA used by LTE, etc., is being extended and superposition of signals for multiple users using a new power domain are being investigated as methods for increasing spectrum efficiency. In addition, high-directivity adaptive antennas with 100 or more elements offering good compatibility with higher frequencies, interference suppression, and simultaneous multi-user access are other potential ways to improve spectrum efficiency. This paper examines 5G wireless access systems and outlines non-orthogonal access and MIMO technologies along with some issues to resolve. 1 Introduction Next-generation 5G access systems are being investigated as a solution to the explosive increase (a factor of 1000x compared to 2010) in wireless data traffic forecast for the 2020s and the rapid appearance of various new. Three approaches are being taken towards supporting these huge traffic increases: making more efficient use of available frequencies, increasing network speeds, and opening-up new frequency bands. Making more efficient use of available frequencies is closely related to speeding-up the physical layer for multi-access and wireless access technologies. For example, increases of from 2.5 to 10 times have been proposed as targets for increasing the efficiency of 5G frequencies. Conventional mobile communications systems are moving towards faster digital wireless technologies based on advances in semiconductor devices as described below. The first generation (1G) used Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA), the second generation (2G) used Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA), the third generation (3G) is using Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA), and the 3.9G and fourth (4G) generations are using Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (OFDMA) supporting efficient frequency usage and good resistance to fading. The proposals for 5G systems aim to increase spectrum efficiency even further by speeding-up existing technologies, using newly opened frequency bands, and increasing network density, and support for the expected required conditions is being examined. The non-orthogonal multiple-access (NOMA) and higher-order multiple-input and multiple-output (MIMO) technologies described in this paper require huge processing power to implement these functio ns, which will be difficult to achieve using the performance of conventional semiconductor devices. Rapid developments in CPU processing power are expected to be a key element in deployment of 5G services. This paper describes the principles of each method related to these technologies and the problems to be resolved. 2 Non-orthogonal Multiple Access (NOMA) Multiple access is a basic function of cellular systems, which are usually divided into two types: orthogonal and non-orthogonal. In orthogonal access systems such as TDMA, FDMA, and OFDMA, signals for different users are orthogonal to each other. On the other hand, in non-orthogonal access systems, such as CDMA, TCMA (Trellis Coded Multiple Access), IDMA (Interleave Division Multiple Access), the cross-correlation of signals for different users is not 0. The commonly used NOMA incorporates the above-described non-orthogonal multiple access but this section discusses a specified NOMA implementation for 5G systems. NOMA under discussion for 5G systems has a new extension of the user multiplex domain to improve the spectrum efficiency. Intentionally introducing non-orthogonality aims to increase the spectrum efficiency further. As a result, technologies such as new encodings and an interference canceler are required to correct the non-orthogonality, which has been considered difficult to implement until now. However, development is pushing forward with the expectation of introduction as key 5G technology following recent remarkable improvements in CPU performance. NOMA can be classified into three different user multiplex domains: NOMA with SIC (Successive Interference Canceler)/SOMA (Semi-orthogonal Multiple Access), SCMA (Sparse Code Multiple Access), and IDMA (Interleave Division Multiple Access). In addition to the conventional frequency and time domains, these schemes aim to increase the spectrum efficiency by multiplexing the user in the power domain for NOMA with SIC/SOMA, in the power and code domains for SCMA, and in the code domain for IDMA. The follow sections explain the characteristics and principles of each of these schemes. 2.1 NOMA with SIC/SOMA NOMA with SIC (NOMA hereafter)/SOMA expands the radio resource allocation for the frequency and time domains used by LTE, etc. By superposing multiple user signals using the new power domain, it becomes possible to increase the spectrum efficiency even further and to increase the throughput. The NOMA and SOMA methods both make positive use of power and loss differences by modulation processing and multiplexing. Multiple users in the power domain are superposed at the symbol level. This method uses SIC, turbo code, and Low Density Parity Check Code (LDPC) at the receiver side to separate superposed users. The bit rate per 1 Hz for each user at this time (at superposition coding) is expressed by Eq. (1). User 2 with high channel gain is assigned the lower power P2 and the user with the low channel gain is assigned the higher power P1 to improve the average throughput for all users, resulting in improved spectrum efficiency. Figure 4 shows the throughput characteristics for both NOMA and Orthogonal Multiple Access (OMA) when there is a 20 dB difference in the receiver power levels; NOMA is characterized by an improvement of up to 2 bits/s/Hz compared to OMA. The difference between NOMA and SOMA is the symbol constellation. The post-superposition symbol constellation mappings are divided into NOMA with SIC without Gray- Mapping and SOMA with GrayMapping. Both methods are now being investigated in 3GPP Release13 RAN1 TSG as a Multi User Superposition Transmitter (MUST). For simplicity these methods are commonly both described as NOMA. 2.2 SCMA SCMA is a relatively new wireless multi-access method proposed in . It avoids the QAM symbol mapping used by conventional CDMA coding technologies and implements the binary data by coding it directly into multi-dimensional code words. Figure 5 shows the SCMA encoder block diagram. The figure shows a schematic of the SCMA encoder when there are four physical resources and four codewords in SCMA code book. Each user or layer assigns the binary data output from the FEC encoder directly to the complex codeword (physical resources dimensions) according to the predefined spreading code of the SCMA codebook. Additionally, multi-user connections are implemented by assigning a different unique code book to each user or layer. Table 2 shows an example of a codebook for six users or layers. As shown in Table 2, a message passing algorithm14) is used because the SCMA codebook contains sparse code words to achieve near-optimal detection of multiplexed data without increasing the complexity of pro cessing at the receiver side. 2.3 IDMA IDMA is a multi-access method first proposed and developed in 200015). It has gained popularity as one possible main access method for implementing the Internet of Things (IoT) and Machine to Machine (M2M) connections over 5G. In IoT/M2M communications, there are expected to be a large number of connected terminals sending small numbers of packets and instead of using packet scheduling based on OMA, the NOMA method is being considered be-cause it has good robustness to interference and does not require scheduling. IDMA within NOMA is known to have excellent user discrimination characteristics and a multi-user interference canceler can work effectively by combining an interleaver for each user with low-coding-rate error-correction coding to achieve a higher throughput com-pared to OFDMA. Additionally, IDMA is well suited to low-coding-rate error correction and is considered appropriate for transmitting the large number of multiplexed small-packet signals used by IoT, M2M, etc. After coding, the information bit sequence is rearranged by using a user-specific interleaved pattern to generate the encoded transmission bit sequence, which is mapped to the modulation symbols. The IDMA receiver is a parallel-type repeat multi-user receiver composed of a multi-user interference canceler and decoder. 2.4 Issues in Measurement Development As described so far, NOMA now under investigation for 5G has various methods. In particular, since the receiver performance depends directly on the SIC performance for NOMA, SOMA, and IDMA, measuring instruments must have functions for evaluating this performance correctly. However, there is presently no clear generation method for SCMA that includes codebook functions. Whether or not this can be solved either by standardization or by some implementation, development is pushing forward while watching trends in standardization and related technologies. 3.1 MIMO Evolution MIMO achieves high throughput and high reliability by using multiple antennas for transmitter and receiver (Figure 7) and it is a key technology in todays wireless communications systems. Furthermore, IEEE802.11ac and LTE-Advanced have adopted multi-user MIMO for simultaneous communications between base station with multiple antennas and multiple mobile terminals. Currently, Massive-MIMO is being proposed as a new technology for improving MIMO characteristics, targeting the 5G roll out. Massive-MIMO uses up-ward of 100 antenna elements to support simultaneous communications with multiple mobile terminals, greatly improving the spectrum usage efficiency. Figure 8: Massive-MIMO Configuration In addition, use of higher frequency bands, such as the millimeter-wave band is being investigated for 5G. Using the millimeter-wave band, is expected to support ultra-high-speed and large capacity communications using small cells, but transmission losses are big in the higher frequency bands and become bigger especially at non-line-of-sight communications (NLOS). Beam forming (BF) using Massive-MIMO antenna configurations (Figure 8) is thought to be effective in countering these increases in transmission losses. Since the antenna elements can be made small in proportion to the wavelength, the overall antenna size can be reduced even when using 100 or more antenna elements. Moreover, using Massive-MIMO can focus the energy to the mobile as a very tight beam, which not only improves the energy efficiency but is also expected to reduce interference between users. With 5G, in addition to conventional voice and internet services, video streaming, wireless Cloud, and M2M applications will become ubiquitous, requiring good service quality. In addition, these data communications will experience much higher variations in traffic levels with region and time, making it important to be able to accommodate bursts of user traffic in space and time. 3.2 Sub-Array Massive-MIMO In a Massive-MIMO configuration, a DAC is connected to each antenna element to form a digital BF configuration (Figure 9) supporting high-performance BF using digital signal processing. However, since the digital BF configuration requires a large number of high-speed DACs, the power consumption is extremely high. Moreover, using millimeter wave communications with the digital BF configuration widens the signal band, which requires high-speed signal processing. On the other hand, since analog BF using analog elements forms the same beam pattern in all bands, there is a risk that the received power of a user will drop when directing the beam at another user. Consequently, to lower the power consumption for millimeter-wave band communications, a hybrid method that can be implemented using smaller number of DACs has been proposed. This hybrid method combines both the analog and digital methods with send weighting to point beams simultaneously at multiple users; it achieves the same gain as digital BF using the massive configuration for all users. 3.3 Issues in Operation of Higher-Order MIMO Various factors including antenna design affect MIMO communication capacity. To be more precise, the following four factors are considered to cause MIMO communication capacity degradation. Inadequate selection of MIMO channel estimation algorithm Crosstalk between transmitter and receiver circuits MIMO gain reduction affected by Line of Sight (LOS) radio wave Inadequate antenna spacing and multiple reflections inside the housing Besides the above mentioned four points, in order to achieve further improvement of spectrum efficiency by using higher-order MIMO, the performances must be properly evaluated from the aspect of radio wave propagation, antenna and communication system. 4 Summary NOMA and MIMO are technologies for improving the spectrum efficiency for 5G wireless communications. The technologies have large benefits in terms of energy efficiency, spectrum efficiency, robustness, and reliability. Current base stations are both expensive and have poor efficiency at high power levels and there are proposals to replace them with massive combined modules featuring low cost and low power consumption. Achieving this requires solutions to various problems to maximize the potential of the technologies, such as complex antenna unit calculations, separation of analog and digital processing, synchronization of antenna units, etc. Additionally, implementing non-orthogonal access requires focus on increasing the power of devices for mobile terminals. Increasing the performance of semi-conductor devices offers a future chance to build high-speed digital signal processing such as SIC into more mobile terminals. Network Assisted Interference Cancellation and Suppression (NAICS ) using SIC is already being discussed by 3GPP for future introduction, and introduction of non-orthogonal access technologies such as NOMA is being proposed to ex-tend NAICS. Continuing active cooperation between industry and universities is required to solve the problems and assure future commercial roll outs. Anritsu has a wide range of measurement solutions for evaluating complex radio infrastructure and is continuing research in this field.

The Late Middle Ages Essay -- History, The Dark Ages

The Middle Ages, often referred to as the Dark Ages, was regarded to be a time of despair, disease, and death. Just as the name the â€Å"Dark Ages† suggests, this period of European history seemed to be surrounded by darkness and hopelessness. Unfortunately, the majority of people only see this side of the Middle Ages when, in fact, the Middle Ages was a much more important era. Especially during the late Middle Ages, one can find a change in orthodox social structure, political instability mostly concerned with succession to the throne, and economic changes and how those changes went hand in hand with the change in society. After certain demographical changes and turning points such as the Hundred Years’ War, Europe began to transform drastically thus threatening traditional Europe. Therefore, unlike popular belief, the late Middle Ages was a time when absolute monarchy began to die and when social structure seemed to be flipping upside down due to drastic changes in economic practices. Politics in the late Middle Ages is best described as instable due to competition for succession and power. The most significant event during this time period was the Hundred Years’ War, basically a territorial conflict and competition for succession between the king of England and the king of France after the Capetian monarchy crumbled. (Spielvogel 281) After the Hundred Years’ War, Europe was put under a period of adversity in terms of their political stability. In England, â€Å"Parliament increased in prominence† and even the king came to â€Å"rely on Parliament to levy new taxes.† (Spielvogel 285) The English monarch no longer had absolute power; he had a â€Å"commitment to levy no direct tax without Parliament’s consent.† (Spielvogel 285) In France, absolu... ...came ever so popular during the Renaissance period. Although many people regard the Middle Ages only as a period in history when time seemed to stop and all advancements seemed to be put on hold, it proves to be a vital piece of European history. Results from the Hundred Years’ War and other territorial or succession disputes crumbled centralized monarchy and gave birth to political administrations that can be seen present day, such as the Parliament. Additionally, the Black Death brought shortage of population and labor thus allowing peasants to grow in value and lords to fall in importance. Economical patterns began to change direction and encouraged the peasants to continue climbing up the social ladder as lords no longer had the power to do whatever they pleased. Accordingly so, the late Middle Ages proved itself to be a turning point towards modern Europe.

Food Essay

Today people seem to be obsessed with their diets. Food is a high priority item on the lifestyle agenda with a marked focus on healthy eating. â€Å"You are what you eat,† says Ayurveda, the ancient Indian science of life. Food is a basic human need. We always need to know what we eat because food affects practically all aspects of our life. Nowadays, in the manufacturing age, our society still faces the food problem. This is a problem of quality, not volume. Our producing system is capable of producing more food than we need, but how can we be sure about its quality? Is it healthy and useful or just fuel for our bodies? In this paper we will try to discover what we exactly eat and why. Really, food can easily become a tool to control society, which seems to be happening now. In our open society we have much more â€Å"taboo† questions than ever before. This is especially true when we start talking about food problems. This is a forbidden ground for most of us. Why does it happen? How can it be possible that people usually do not know how their food has been made? There are some enthusiasts who try to find answers. The â€Å"FOOD, INC. movie, directed by Robert Kenner, is one of the most famous sources devoted to this problem. This movie tells us how our food industry takes people under control. The papers, provided by professional scientists can show an impartial assessment of the problem discussed. Only studying different sources can help to find the truth. Our online writing services can deliver similar custom essays on any related subj ect. Professional paper writers working for us are experts in this field, willing to provide qualified help with written assignments and custom essays for our clients. http://studentessayhelp. com/2010/09/23/food

Girls and poverty Essay

The gap between the world’s rich and poor keeps widening. Over the last 20 years, the market share of the least-developed countries (700 million inhabitants) has decreased from 1 percent to 0. 6 percent of the world’s total commerce. â€Å"The majority of the population in black Africa is poorer today than a generation ago,† writes French economist Philippe Jurgensen in Challenges magazine. In Ethiopia, for example, 67 million people live on one third the wealth of Luxembourg’s 400,000 inhabitants. Jurgensen notes that European farmers are entitled to receive a daily subsidy of 2. 5 euros per cow, whereas some 2. 5 billion people live on less than that each day. Thus, in many parts of the world, â€Å"a poor person is worth less than a cow,† says Jurgensen. (Bowler, 1983, 15) The present society today is composed of a vast population that is so much divided by the economic status of each individual. There are those who have strived and attained the wealth that they wanted, and there are those who remained in their state and stayed poor all their lives. This is the situation that social Darwinism suggests. (IRN Zimbabwe, 2003, 19) The vast income divide between rich and poor segregates people and even countries from one another. Not long ago the fortune of the richest man in the United States surpassed the combined net worth of more than 100 million of his fellow Americans. Globalization has also favored the growth of rich multinational companies that have practically taken over the world market for certain products. In 1998, for example, just ten companies controlled 86 percent of the $262-billion telecommunications business (Gelb, 1986, 17). The economic clout of these multinationals often exceeds that of governments and, as Amnesty International points out, â€Å"human rights and labour rights are not a priority on their agenda. (Gelb, 1986, 10) Because of this fact, economic prejudice and oppression of the poor is very eminent within the communities of any nation. At so many situations, it could be noted that the poor are the ones discriminated from receiving the needed provisions that they ought to receive from the governments. Their rights are duly suppressed simply because of the fact that they have not much financial source to support their need or even their rights. Sadly, the situation of the poor becomes even poorer every second that the society advances ahead through technology, while the rich ones become richer because of their capability to use capitalism as a source of business, which would give them even more financial freedom. At this point, the existence of social Darwinism already becomes clear. Yes, Social Darwinism clearly portrays the psychological distraction that the poor ones get from their situation in life. Being poor have naturally made people commit the biggest mistake of simply accepting what they are. Their blinded mind that focuses on their misery has dragged them to the dreadful situation of helplessness that they are dealing with right now. Certainly, in relating the said theory to the actual situations of the humanity, it could be observed that the idea of Darwinism is indeed true and is obvious. Because of the fact that there are those who have power, mainly because they have the capability to gain the said authority due to their accumulation of wealth, the oppression of those who do not have the sources to attain power continues to rise. How is this proven? The following paragraphs that would pertain to the actual current issues shall clearly state the situation of the society regarding social Darwinism. With the existence of Social Darwinism as it is, it could be noted that most of the victims of poverty around the world [particularly in America and Africa] are young children and teenage girls as well. Obviously, the main attack of poverty directly affects the lives of the young ones as they stand as the most vulnerable elements of the society during these particular events and social dilemma. To understand better, the situational elements that contribute to poverty both in America and Africa are to be identified herein. Elements of Poverty Poverty is indeed wide spread in the whole world. Because of the lack of ability of the world governments to accurately provide people with what they need due to the fast-growing population, many among the human society are set aside and pushed towards poverty. Hence, as a result, their offspring and the generation that follows their line then remain in the said economic status. There are only a few among the many who are able to succeed in running away or struggling hard to change their status in the community. (Korten, 2001, 17) As a result, those people steadied in their situation of being poor already loose hope in coping up with their needs. The fact that they are suppressed in having the things that they need because of their incapability to pay, they then develop the idea that there are no ways for them to survive from their miseries in life except for the fact that they need to live by and accept their life as it is. It might then raise curiosity among readers on â€Å"what are the real causes of poverty among people in the society? † In the diagram that follows, a summarized presentation of the said issue shall be addressed showing what is actually driving the poor sector of the society remains the way that they are. Analysis of Diagram: In the diagram presented above, it could be observed that there are three major reasons why the poor remain poor. The said reasons are as follows: †¢ Economic Imbalance This factor pertains to the fact that that world’s wealth is not evenly distributed to every person making up the population of the society. Because of the fact that there are those capitalists that aim to put up their own businesses to be able to gain more profit from their original amount of money invested on the said business entity. It is through this that they are able to gain power over the others who are struggling for survival from being poor. †¢ Population Growth It is an irony that those who are poor are the ones bearing many children, children of which they are not able to support. This is because of the idea that they believe in that their children would be the ones who would struggle for better life for them. The more children they have, the faster they would be able to recover from their misery in poverty. However, this idealism has been proven a fallacy. For a fact, as the children of the poor sector add up, the more they feel the terrifying experience of their situation. †¢ Psychological Disposition Based on psychological findings, poor people tend to ease their burden by telling themselves that they are already contented in the lifestyle that they are living in, and that they have nowhere else to go. As a result, the capitalists feed on this thought by contributing to the idea that without ample finances to support their needs, they are not going to get what they actually ought to have for a living. Basing from these three reasons, it could be observed that poor people simply tend to remain the way they are and the rich ones try to support the said situation by gaining more and not sharing what they have to those who are actually needy. As a result, people who are poor gain three major reactions to the situation. The said reactions include contentment on being poor, lack of self-trust and subjection to social discrimination; these are the things that the poor sector of the society needs to deal with everyday. Hence, America, being surrounded by capitalists and investors, has the rich and the poor sectors which are widely separated from each other. The fact that these capitalist know what to do with the money that they have, they are able to come up with ways by which they can still increase the wealth that they already posses. On the other hand, those who are poor have lesser ideas as well as courage in creating new ways to find a way of living. Certainly, the rich ones who have greater education have greater chances of creating possibilities for themselves to attain financial success in their lives. More often than not, the rich ones who are already settled in their situation are the ones who have greater chances of increasing their authority and power in the society through the use of their finances (Gelb, 1986, 22). Meanwhile, the poor one who are receiving lesser than needed are focusing on the things that they could only attain. They have lesser time spent on thinking how to increase their finances since they are already only trying to live by with what they have, and they do not have enough hopes of spending their time in planning, since they are already so consumed with their present situation. The Teenage Girls and their Reactions to Poverty There are likely three major results of poverty among young girls both in America and Africa. The said three major results are as follows: Diagram 2: The effects of Poverty on Young Teenage Girls in America and Africa Explanation: From the diagram presented herein, it could be observed that girls from both Africa and America who for some reasons are afflicted by poverty react in almost the same way to the level of being directly affected by the situation (Tanenbaum, 2000, 13). Most likely, their health and their safety becomes the most vulnerable element that needs some attention from the governing authorities who have concern over the situation (Riordan, 2004, 18). Undeniably, although the said societies are separately identified as somewhat different in terms of economic standing in the world trade, the reasons behind their poverty levels are somewhat identical that brings the results of the said situation in the society towards the teenage girl-population of the said communities somewhat common and identical as well. (Vendela, 2004, 18) Conclusion The belief behind the existence of the poor and the reasons behind the said situation is naturally noted as something that needs to be closely identified to be able to help solve the issues that bind poverty with that of human society today. The young ones, being the main target of the situation [teenage girls in particular] are facing a great challenge of remaining strong in facing the said issues of lacking the needed strength. Psychologists and other government authorities could help much in defining the different solutions that are made available for the ones affected by the afflictions brought about by poverty in both industrialized and still-developing countries such as that of Africa. References: †¢ IRIN News South Africa: Land ownership remains racially skewed May 24, 2005 †¢ IRIN News Land reform in Southern Africa July, 2003. †¢ IRIN News Zimbabwe: Land reform omits farm workers Land reform in Southern Africa July, 2003. †¢ Bowler, Peter. The Eclipse of Darwinism: Anti-Darwinian Evolution Theories in the Decades around 1900. Baltimore, 1983. †¢ Gelb, S. A. â€Å"Henry H. Goddard and the Immigrants, 1910-1917: The Studies and their Social Context,† Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 22 (1986): 324-332. †¢ Rosenberg, Charles E. â€Å"The Bitter Fruit: Heredity, Disease and Social Thought,† Perspectives in American History 8 (1974):189-235. †¢ David C Korten. When Corporations Rule the World. Berrett-Koehler Publishers. (2001): 345-346. †¢ Founou-Tchuigoua, Bernard Food self-sufficiency: Crisis of the collective ideology African agriculture: The critical choices. United Nations University Press (1990) ISBN 0-86232-798-9 †¢ Milich, Lenard (1997) Food security in Pre-Colonial Hausaland . World Commission on Protected Areas (1995-2006) WCPA West and Central Africa Region Key Issues The World Conservation Union National Academy of Sciences Lost Crops of Africa:Grains ISBN 0-309-04990-3 publication announcement March 4, 1996 †¢ Future Harvest With time running out, scientists attempt rescue of African vegetable crops. News Feature November 29, 2001 †¢ Gouse, Marnus et al. Three seasons of subsistence insect-resistant maize in South Africa: have smallholders benefited? AgBioForum Volume 9, No. 1 (2006) †¢ Singh, B. P. (2002) Nontraditional crop production in Africa for export. p. 86–92. In: J. Janick and A. Whipkey (eds. ), Trends in new crops and new uses. ASHS Press, Alexandria, VA. †¢ Leora Tanenbaum. (2000). Slut! Growing Up Female with a Bad Reputation. Harper Paperbacks; 1 edition. †¢ Teresa Riordan. (2004). Inventing Beauty: A History of the Innovations that Have Made Us Beautiful. Broadway Publishing. †¢ Vendela Vida. (2000). Girls on the Verge: Debutante Dips, Drive-bys, and Other Initiations. St. Martin’s Griffin; 5th edition.

Pretty Woman - 1980s Economy, Class, and Gender Relations essays

Pretty Woman - 1980s Economy, Class, and Gender Relations essays The 1980s was the time of The Reagan Revolution. Reagan used supply-side economics as a way to justify cutting taxes. This held in that tax reductions towards investors and businesses would create more jobs and set the economy on a better path. Another issue that was gaining momentum was the womens movement. Many social and economic changes were happening during the 80s; this can be seen in the pop culture of the 80s. Pretty Woman (1990) is an example hereof. A movie where one of the main characters is a prostitute, Vivian Ward and the other is a business tycoon, Edward Lewis. These two individuals come from completely different social classes, and their authority on others is on different levels. I want to argue that Pretty Woman shows the division between classes and the economic aftereffects of the Reagan-era and that women, as portrayed in the movie, only had glimpses of independence. Pretty Womans portrayal of class differences can be seen throughout the movie. In the opening scenes, this is characterized by lighting, Edwards scene is well-lit and the surroundings are clean. In contrast, Vivians scene is dark with a messy environment along with mutilated photographs. This reflects the differences in their living situations. Another scene that stands out is when Vivian goes shopping the first time to buy a cocktail dress. The saleswomen on Rodeo Drive do not want anything to do with Vivian. They simply tell her I dont think we have anything for you. Youre obviously in the wrong place. Please leave (Pretty Woman). This is said to Vivian even after she says that she has money to spend. Because she is dressed in revealing attire that does not resemble that of a middle- or upper-class woman, she is denied help and asked to leave. Max Weber writes: Status position is not determined by class position alone: possession of money or the position of entrepreneur are not ...

jan 09 english question Essay

jan 09 english question Essay jan 09 english question Essay Jan 09 English Question The story â€Å"An Encounter† is a part of the ‘childhood’ section of the collection of stories in Dubliners, and it explores the characteristics of child voice and child viewpoint the section contains. The extract of the story indicates a change in the boy’s attitude with regards to the old man. The initial response that the boy has when the man approaches them is that his voice is pleasingly liberal and well read, and as such was attractive to him. However, in the extract this perception seems to change, as it comes after the boy begins to feel uneasy around the man and decides to adopt false names as an indicator of his growing unease. The seemingly inconspicuous title â€Å"An Encounter† makes the events in the story seem less sinister and wide ranging, so it was the boy’s reaction to the old man that was pivotal to the role of the encounter in the story rather than the existence of the man himself. This could be to show that the story presents the realities of real life and the difficulties that the boy will have to face as he grows up and becomes an adult. His changing perspective on the man and his growing awareness throughout the extract shows the speed of his maturation process, and how he is progressing to become a man. In the extract, the voice of the narrator is used to show the boy’s growing mindfulness as he reflects on the words of the stranger. Joyce uses language to manipulate his narrator to reveal his own personal viewpoint and voice in the story. The methods used to capture the voice of the old man change throughout the whole encounter. Initially, the boy seems detached from the situation, using devices of indirect speech e.g. â€Å"he said†, â€Å"he asked†, â€Å"he began†. As the extract progresses the boy becomes more involved in the conversation and the terms of speech gradually become more direct. The middle section of the first paragraph seems to be almost word for word the man’s statements. This shows that the boy is gradually becoming more aware of the man’s intentions and thoughts as the conversation develops, and his involvement in the discussion becomes more explicit. Also, the idea of an emerging paralysis of the boy is put forward by Joyce to emphasise the growing paralysis of the people of Dublin. This paralysis is shown by the silence of the boy during the conversation, in contrast to his dreamed, irate interaction: â€Å"I was going to reply indignantly that we were not National School boys to be whipped, as he called it; but I remained silent.† The use of a semi-colon extends the pause between the two clauses, and implies reflection; whereas the use of italics on the word â€Å"whipped† implies the indignant nature of the boy’s imagined delivery of his retort. His inability to confront the old man and act further emphasises his paralysis and implies the paralysis of the rest of the people in Dublin. Joyce’s manipulation of narrative perspective throughout the extract reveals that the sexual nature of the man’s obsession with â€Å"whipping boys† is outside the boy’s immature frame of reference. The manner in which the boy recounts and comments on the man’s words proves this, with the constant referencing to the fact that it is indeed the man who made these utterances – with constant allusions to the man â€Å"he seemed†, â€Å"he said†. Contrary to the idea of a growing awareness being highlighted in the boy throughout, at the end of the extract, Joyce emphasises the fact that the boy doesn’t fully understand the man: â€Å"seemed to plead with me that I should understand him.† â€Å"An Encounter† shows a growing awareness

Top 3 Traits That Will Get You Hired

Top 3 Traits That Will Get You Hired No matter how perfect your resume, there are still several crucial X factors that any HR company will evaluate you for during an interview. Review these dynamic traits and think about how to incorporate them into the image you project on paper and in person! 1. AgilityThis isn’t talking about your ability to physically jump through hoops or walk balance beams; metaphorically, a company wants to see you can adapt your approach when necessary, recognize shifting dynamics, and possess intercultural skills that help you find common ground and collaborate with your colleagues.2. AttitudeVery few job postings outside of a zany start-up will list â€Å"sense of humor† as a qualification, but equally few office environments can do without enthusiastic, entertaining employees. Come to work with a sense of fun, the enjoyment of a new challenge, and the intelligence to know you don’t have all the answers (but you do have a willingness to persist until you find them).3. Awar enessDon’t forget to research the company that you’re applying with- after the interview is not the time to google â€Å"Company Name + New York Times† and expect recent developments to do you any good. Be involved in the industry you’re trying to enter, even if it’s only as an informational resource on Twitter or LinkedIn. Show that you know what conversations are already in progress and how you fit in to them as an employee and an innovator!

Interview questions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words - 1

Interview questions - Essay Example In addition, the training capitalized on the principle of putting the customer at the center of ever business transaction. I defined a consistent set of behaviors across all our business activities, which led to effective interactions with customers, regardless of the situation. For more than 10 years of my career as a Senior Vice President, Retail Executive, and Chief Operating Officer (COO), I have made essential contributions in business development planning. Usually, I start business development planning sessions by evaluating the company’s current situation (SWOT analysis), creating effective solutions and plans to implement the solutions. While planning for the future goals of the company, I utilize the information to set the course for sustained growth. I involved everyone in the team to gain a strong team support and enthusiasm. I measured profitability by putting the right metrics in place (tangible results) and evaluating the outcomes that will drive a successful business development plan. Metrics have connected the dots for me when a strategy/tactic is not working. Lastly, I keep the communication going, letting the team know about our progress and where the company is heading. To further elaborate my point, I led a quarterly "all retail" conference call at _______. It was my opportunity to reinforce our core values or our strategic plan. I welcomed every new employee and recognized individuals and teams for success in our five focuses. I ended the call with "RITA awards." RITA is an acronym for our core values; respect and inclusion, integrity, teamwork, and accountability. The RITA submissions were sent in from the teams peer group. It was our opportunity to formally express our sincere gratitude to everyone for living up to the company’s core values. I firmly believe that good communication among co-workers is an essential element in effectively

World History since 1945 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

World History since 1945 - Essay Example The doctrine also promised to help Turkey and Greece economically and through military actions against the communists this after Britain announced that they would be withdrawing their support. These countries were to receive $400,000,000 aid. The doctrine contents were justified by the need to help free people in their fight against totalitarian rule which would undermine international peace, and as a result affect the state of security in the United States (Jones 36). The National Security Council Paper NSC-68 was a top secret report meant to confront the treat the hostile design of the Soviet Union had on the USA. The report banned the regeneration of US isolationism arguing that it will result in Soviet Union supremacy of Eurasia, and leave the USA stranded on the western hemisphere, away from its allies and assets need to push away Soviet infringement. Additionally, the report ruled out a deterrent strike against the Soviet Union since it will result in tit-for-tat action that would be devastating to Western Europe. The report also paved way for possible future negotiations with the Soviet Union. In its conclusion, the paper called for massive development of both conventional and nuclear arm in order to prevent the Soviet Union. However, this could only be achieved through increased taxes as well as the reduction of expenditure. The report was widely criticized with the critics arguing that USA already had a significant military edge over the Soviet Union. However, in June 1950 the recommendations were adopted as policy (Jones 72). When Mao took over the leadership of China in 1949, the country was witnessing a lot of problems. For instance, the country had fewer industries, unemployment levels were high, food shortages coupled with increased population. In 1949, 85 percent of chinas population were peasants. Mao

Death Marches of the Holocaust Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Death Marches of the Holocaust - Essay Example fall into enemy hands alive to tell their stories to Allied and Soviet liberators (2) The SS thought they needed prisoners to maintain production of armaments wherever possible (3) Some SS leaders, including Himmler, believed irrationally that they could use Jewish concentration camp prisoners as hostages to bargain for a separate peace in the west that would guarantee the survival of the Nazi regime (Holocaust Encyclopedia). Thus, one is clear that the Germans prevented the prisoners escaping from the concentration camps, and if anybody attempts to escape or protest against this injustice, they would either be severely tortured or killed. Evacuation The evacuation of the soldiers was so brutal that thousands of prisoners were forced to move through a worst climate. According to Yehuda Bauer, on January 18, 1945, about 66,020 â€Å"†¦starving prisoners were marched out of the camp shivering in the bitter winter cold dressed in the now familiar thin, striped clothed and wearing, for the most part, only wooden shoes or sandals where their feet were not covered in rags† (Bauer 1). The words of Bauer exactly portray the picture of the Death marches. He further adds that the prisoners were treated as animals and â€Å"were either forced to march on foot, driven relentlessly and senselessly through the snow-covered countryside, beaten and starved, anyone lagging behind would shot without mercy; or they were herded, 80 to 100 persons or more, onto uncovered railway cars without water or food for days on end† (Bauer 1). Historical analysis reveals that the Death Marches continued for about four months till the defeat of the Germans. After effect of the evacuation As stated earlier, the Death Marches, as the names symbolizes, were really marches of death. Jennifer Rosenberg... This essay discusses that the evacuation of the soldiers was so brutal that thousands of prisoners were forced to move through the worst climate. On January 18, 1945, about 66,020 â€Å"†¦starving prisoners were marched out of the camp shivering in the bitter winter cold dressed in the now familiar thin, striped clothed and wearing, for the most part, only wooden shoes or sandals where their feet were not covered in rags†. The words of Bauer exactly portray the picture of the Death marches. He further adds that the prisoners were treated as animals and â€Å"were either forced to march on foot, driven relentlessly and senselessly through the snow-covered countryside, beaten and starved, anyone lagging behind would shot without mercy; or they were herded, 80 to 100 persons or more, onto uncovered railway cars without water or food for days on end†. Historical analysis reveals that the Death Marches continued for about four months till the defeat of the Germans. Some of the studies have identified that even after the death marches still there remained about 70000 prisoners in the concentration camps. It has also been identified that at least a quarter of a million prisoners were sent on death marches which lasted for weeks and hundreds of kilometers. The death marches continued to the very day of German fall. It was unparallel in history that majority of the survivors are of the opinion that it would be better to be killed in the gas chambers than undergoing all these tortures. Thus it unearths the fate of the prisoners in the Death Marches.

Socio-Cultural Turn in Public Relations Scholarship Essay

Socio-Cultural Turn in Public Relations Scholarship - Essay Example Due to this fact, the social world has not had its fair share of this research as far as public relations are concerned . It is a well-known fact that organizations do operate in the social world full of cultural diversity and any communication or decision that does not take into account the interests of the socio-cultural dimension is ineffective. This is because such public relations may not go down well with a section of persons in the social scene . Public relations scholarship has in turn taken a new dimension to meet the emerging interests by the society and culture. It has become evident that public relations scholarship cannot be the reserve of organizations alone but ought to incorporate such aspect of life as anthropology, storytelling, cultural studies, and pragmatism as a whole . These methodological approaches encompass both the practical and the theoretical aspects of various disciplines ranging from post-colonial life, sociology, political economy, cultural, and ecological studies . Recent studies have proved that when scholars engage in the new ways of public relations like extracting interviews especially from those who specialize in that particular field, they tend to expand their communication insight and gain more inspiration . This enables them to face the social world with confidence and a new perspective of handling diverse personalities as these also, exist in the world where organizations operate. In the face of multiple communication channels and strategies, it has become apparent that public relations and public relations scholarship should not suffer constraints and limits. This extends to the fact that currently organizations are the only institutions that get the recognition of managing their affairs as far as public relations are concerned9. Public relations culture and infrastructure Public relations, when viewed from the cultural perspective, must pay due attention to the general as well as the specific territorial aspects of the culture. The m ain components of the territorial infrastructure of the public relations are the civil society, the political and economic system, the media system, and the socio-cultural system10. Both culture and public relations are a function of the existence of human beings in that the man is the originator of culture and creator public relations therefore the two can work better if man incorporates them to

Marketing in the For and Not For Profit Sectors Essay

Marketing in the For and Not For Profit Sectors - Essay Example The essay "Marketing in the For and Not For Profit Sectors" talks about the marketing strategies of both for profit and not for profit organizations have been discussed extensively. All current theories have been examined and explained with relevant examples. In the case of for profit companies, the buyer behavior was discussed.With the companies who aim to make a profit the term marketing associates itself to advertising and sales promotions and is more misunderstood than understood. Marketing is much more than that. The need to project the qualities and benefits of a product, the comparison of one product with the competition and the value for money concept are all various angle of the one single objective of making a consumer or buyer aware of its existence and to convince him to buy it. Since marketing is the only tool available for promotion of the idea, service or product, various theories and methods have been adopted in different scenarios for these endeavors.There are many a pproaches to addressing such an understanding of business customers or consumers, but one proposed by Dibb and Simkin has been widely adopted across consumer, business and service markets. Their Buying Proforma forces managers to put the customer first and identifies exactly what the company must provide or offer. It also reveals the influences the company, in turn, must strive to influence and offers a framework against which to compare competitors’ moves and marketing programs.

Deconstructing Design Thesis Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Deconstructing Design - Thesis Example Furthermore, it demonstrates that this profession has demanding standards, which attract intelligent and motivated people. The general public should thereby also recognise the design profession and the work involved as valuable and a display of intelligence besides being creative. This issue is relevant to the field and worthy of attention because addressing it can help promote the design profession and improve its image as a knowledgeable one. This could make people better aware of what design really involves and its demanding and competitive nature. The techniques used in image making and branding in advertising will be illustrated for the purpose. In addition, examples of works will be given that demonstrate the challenges designers face so that readers appreciate their valuable role in the profession. Simply stated, a designer is a person who designs. A designer therefore specifies certain properties of something that is to be made, created, built or laid out. However, a more precise definition also requires mention of the typical distinguishing qualities found in a designer and the kind of work he or she engages in. For example, an empirical study by Rourke & Sweller (2009) showed that a proper appreciation and identification of a designer’s work requires at least a moderate level of visual literacy skills. This shows that designers themselves must have strong visual literacy skills that enable them to produce the kind of work they do. Moreover, only a designer is able to truly understand the design challenges, both historical and present, that are involved in a work (Kowalski, 2007). As a profession, a designer is one â€Å"who develops solutions to commercial needs that require the balancing of technical, commercial, human and aesthetic requirements† (DIA, 2010). There are many areas in which designers work, so the work handled by a designer determines the type of a designer. For example,

Marketing in the For and Not For Profit Sectors Essay

Marketing in the For and Not For Profit Sectors - Essay Example The essay "Marketing in the For and Not For Profit Sectors" talks about the marketing strategies of both for profit and not for profit organizations have been discussed extensively. All current theories have been examined and explained with relevant examples. In the case of for profit companies, the buyer behavior was discussed.With the companies who aim to make a profit the term marketing associates itself to advertising and sales promotions and is more misunderstood than understood. Marketing is much more than that. The need to project the qualities and benefits of a product, the comparison of one product with the competition and the value for money concept are all various angle of the one single objective of making a consumer or buyer aware of its existence and to convince him to buy it. Since marketing is the only tool available for promotion of the idea, service or product, various theories and methods have been adopted in different scenarios for these endeavors.There are many a pproaches to addressing such an understanding of business customers or consumers, but one proposed by Dibb and Simkin has been widely adopted across consumer, business and service markets. Their Buying Proforma forces managers to put the customer first and identifies exactly what the company must provide or offer. It also reveals the influences the company, in turn, must strive to influence and offers a framework against which to compare competitors’ moves and marketing programs.

Glorious Celebration Essay Example for Free

Glorious Celebration Essay Maya Angelou, born Marguerite Johnson, is regarded as one of the celebrated American writers alive. Besides writing a lot of memorable works, she is also the subject of other authors who have written a lot about her life and works. There is her biography written by two of her friends, Marcia Gillespie and Richard Long, along with her nephew Rosa Butler. Mary Jane Lupton writes a biography-cum-writer’s guide on Maya Angelou’s works. L. Patricia Kite also writes a similar book depicting her life story and so does Jill Egan who highlighted the trials Angelou went through but also the triumphs as well. In his work, Jeffrey Elliot compiled interviews made by several authors on Maya Angelou to create a verbal mosaic of the life and works of the writer. Lyman Hagen makes a critical analysis of her works and managed to find the â€Å"secret† behind the success of Angelou. Priscilla Ramsey makes a critical analysis of Angelou’s poems in a journal. Another analysis is made by William Sylvester. Carol Neubauer analyzes one of her works, The Heart of a Woman to understand the woman behind the words. Sidonie Ann Smith wrote an analysis of Angelou’s first work The Song of a Caged Bird which centers on self-acceptance. Gillespie, M. , Butler, R. J. and Long, R. A. (2008). Maya Angelou: A Glorious Celebration. New York: Doubleday. This biography was written by her friends Gillespie and Long with her nephew Butler. This was written and published in celebration of Angelou’s 80th birthday and as the title of the book suggests, it has been 80 glorious years of her life though it has had its ups and downs as the authors hold nothing back in relating the colorful life of one of America’s celebrated literary artists. The book covers the traumatic experience she had at a young age to the beginning of her literary talents during her adolescence; she ventured briefly into acting and took part in the civil rights movement, rubbing elbows with Martin Luther King and Malcolm X until the time she took part in the inauguration of President Bill Clinton. Though Angelou had a troubled youth, she moved on and it was through literature that she was able to pull through and used it as her vehicle to express happiness and optimism. Lupton, M. J. (1998). Maya Angelou: A Critical Companion. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc. Lupton provides a critical analysis of Angelou’s 5-volume autobiography. For each one, she provides an general overview, a background of the story. This would be followed by an analysis of various points of view like a narrative in the case of Heart of a Woman then describe the structure of the story where patterns are found. Then there is a plot development which focuses on revealing the character of the subject followed by a character development which reveals the character’s personality as the story develops. Then there is the thematic issues which identifies the theme of the story. This is followed by styles and literary devices which describes what devices were deployed by Angelou. This book would be a reliable guide to anyone who reads Angelou and needed a quick reference to its technical aspects besides the stories themselves. Kite, L. P. (2006). Maya Angelou. Minneapolis: Lerner Publications Company. This book is a biography of Angelou. The author touches on the personal aspects of Angelou’s life. She starts the story in 1993, the day Angelou recited a poem at President Bill Clinton’s inauguration and segues back to the day she was born and moving progressively to 1996. Her poems are mentioned here but not fully presented. This book caters mainly to elementary school students and serves as an ideal starter for anyone who appreciates poetry and will be surely inspired after reading Angelou’s story. Egan, J. (2009). Maya Angelou. A Creative and Courageous Voice. Pleasantsville, New York: Gareth Stevens Publishing. As the title suggests, this book mainly tackles the life and times of Maya Angelou. In the nine chapters of this book, Egan takes the reader on a journey covering the life and times of Angelou which is fraught with trials and tribulations but also of the courage to go one despite its presence. In the chapter â€Å"Finding Her Voice† was the start of Angelou’s literary career which was meant to be a form of therapy but later on became her calling. In the latter chapter, â€Å"A Glorious Legacy,† she turned to writing greeting cards for Hallmark not because she needed a job but for the love of writing and the celebration of life. Elliot, J. M. (Editor). (1989). Conversations with Maya Angelou. Jackson City: University of Mississippi Press. Elliot has compiled several interviews made by selected authors with Maya Angelou. Each interview or conversation tells the same story. It is about the triumph over adversity and her works serve as her vehicle of conveying that message. Angelou also clarified that her works are not exclusively dedicated to African-Americans though she lived through the turbulent times with them, but for all mankind. This book is ideal for scholars and students who wish to gain more insight to the woman behind remarkable works. Hagen, L. B. (1997). Heart of a Woman, Mind of a Writer and Soul of a Poet. Lanham Maryland: University Press of America. Hagen’s work is a critical analysis of the works of Maya Angelou. The first chapter is devoted to telling her life story. Chapter 2 reveals Angelou’s â€Å"secrets† to her very successful works which is the use of humor to offset the trying times she had gone through in her life instead of dwelling on the hurts of her past. The rest of the chapters makes an analysis of her works – her autobiographies and her poems as well as other aspects of Angelou’s multi-faceted life. These are purely analysis and do not give the full text of her works save for excerpts used in making the analyses. Ramsey, P. R. (1984). Transcendence: The Poetry of Maya Angelou. Current Bibliography on African Affairs 17 (2). 139-153. Priscilla Ramsey makes an in-depth analysis on the poems of Maya Angelou. Angelou’s poems are grounded on the reality of life as she has experienced them. Angelou uses her poems as a means to express her thoughts and sentiments not only about her own life but also the events that were unfolding around her from segregation to the civil rights movement. Angelou has practically employed every known literary device to be able to write elaborate poems that pretty much capture life the way she has seen it through her own eyes. Sylvester, W. (1995). Maya Angelou: An Overview. In T. Riggs (Editor) Contemporary Poets. New York: St. James Press. Sylvester gives an overall analysis of the poems of Maya Angelou. While doing so, he highlighted events in Angelou’s life which have had a profound influence on her, from William Shakespeare which she confessed was her â€Å"first love† to her involvement in the civil rights movement as an organizer working alongside Martin Luther King. Sylvester reveals that her poems are uniquely hers and are not imitations of other works as revealed with unique words she used. Neubauer, C. E. (1983). Displacement and Autobiographical Style in Maya Angelou’s Heart of a Woman. Black American Literature Forum 17 (3). 123-129. Neubauer makes an in-depth analysis of one of Angelou’s work Heart of a Woman which is more of an autobiography. Her starting point is the time she already reached adulthood, highlighting her different careers especially in one of the turbulent times not only of her life but to all black Americans for this was the civil rights movement. She uses her own life experience to mirror how â€Å"little people† felt. She provides a grassroots level view of the things happening in society here through her own eyes. She also compared and contrasted the styles of two of its prominent movers, Malcolm X and Martin Luther King, finding the latter more congenial. Smith, S. A. (1973) The Song of a Caged Bird: Maya Angelous Quest after Self-Acceptance. The Southern Humanities Review. 365-375. This is another analysis of a work by Maya Angelou. From the year, one can tell this is one of the earliest analysis made and this is â€Å"fresh† from the recent events of the previous decade where Angelou had been very active in the civil rights movement. But this story highlights the childhood of Angelou which was anything but happy. Her youth is a journey to freedom from â€Å"imprisonment† caused by misery and highlighted moments of struggle as she moved on until she finally attained the freedom she sought and it all boil down to self-acceptance. Angelou’s story is not a mere autobiography but also serves as a lesson in life where self-acceptance is the main theme and one of the keys to coping with life’s problems.

Trans Atlantic Slave Trade History History Essay

Trans Atlantic Slave Trade History History Essay The Royal African Company of London was initiated by King Charles II in his ambition to expand the slave trade of England. King Charles II and the duke of York invested their own funds into the company to establish it. Initially it was known as the Company of Royal Adventurers Trading to Africa company and was only involved in gold trading and was created by the Stuart family and London merchants once the former retook the English throne in the English Restoration of 1660.The company was granted a monopoly over the English slave trade by a charter issued in 1660 and was given the mandate to capture any English rival ship transporting slaves. The company later collapsed since it could not meet the due huge demands of slaves in England among other issues (Miers 45). England first got involved in slave trade in the 16th century; a move pioneered by John Hawkins an English man whose business was to deport Africans from the west coast of Africa to the West Indies (Walter 72). At first, trading directly with other European countries was common in Virginia, but the Navigation Act of 1660 brought such relations to an end and only English-owned ships could enter colonial ports. It was at this time that the Royal African Company was formed to supply Virginia planters with labor since England had realized there was a lot of wealth in the trade. The Royal African Company traded mainly for gold and slaves and the majority of whom were sent to English colonies in the Americas. Its headquarters was Cape Coast Castle, modern-day Ghana; it also maintained many forts and factories in other locations such as Sierra Leone, the Slave Coast, the River Gambia, and additional areas on the Gold Coast Weeden 63). The Royal African Company lost its monopoly in 1698, although it continued to engage in the slave trade until 1731. It was replaced by the Company of Merchants Trading to Africa in 1752. In the 1680s it was transporting about 5,000 slaves per year. Many were branded with the letters DY, after its chief, the Duke of York, who succeeded his brother on the throne in 1685, becoming James II (Blackburn 212). Other slaves were branded with the companys initials, RAC, on their chests and its profits made a major contribution to the increase in the financial power of those who controlled London The British greatly benefited from this lucrative enterprise and approximately 1.5 million ,people were enslaved by the them, London was the biggest trading centre because of its transport links provided by river Thames and the London docks (Alpers, Campbell Salman 256). Britain as a country enormously benefited from the trade since slaves were exchanged for cutlery and, military supplies, which they would then exchange in West Indies to get raw materials for their industries and the products sold at huge profits. According to Bryan (106), There can be little doubt that such a system of trade substantially boosted the development of Britains commerce and manufacturing. However, there were different lines of slave trade such as the Pacific and the Atlantic; England was mostly involved in the Atlantic slave trade. The slave trade was also known as the Trans-Atlantic slave trade; it was the biggest and it mainly dealt with Africans. It lasted from the 16th century to the 19th when slave trade was abolished (Carlos 330). The trade involved many countries like the Portuguese, Brazilians, the British, the French, the Spanish, the Dutch, and the North Americans. The slaves were mostly from west and central Africa who were captured during trade at the coast while others were kidnapped from their homes or raided at their homes. They were sold to North and South American merchants to work in their sugar, coffee, cocoa, cotton, and rice plantations while others worked in the gold mines and silver mines (Drescher 77). Curlin (169) notes that more than 12 million Africans were enslaved under this trade which is referred to as maafa by Africans (literally meant great disaster), and the trade involved four continents, four centuries and millions of people. The first documented arrival of Africans to Virginia the first place where slaves were deported was in 1619, when a Dutch trading vessel docked in Hampton. There were 20 Africans who were traded to the English as much-needed workers to cultivate tobacco, the new cash crop of Virginia (Engerman 79). The institution of slavery slowly crept into Virginia legislation and by 1660 it was fully established in Virginia, since tobacco was extremely labor-intensive, and more and more workers were needed and also the sale of Africans to Virginia planters promised to be a profitable endeavor which really flourished (Brown 51). Nevertheless, Kwaku (4) states that slavery can be traced back to Africa itself, where Africans practiced slavery and was a part of their traditions. Africans sold slaves to Arabs before the arrival of the European who took the trade to a higher level. The Atlantic trade happened in two systems: the first and the second Atlantic systems. The first system involved sale of slaves to South America colonies of the Portuguese and the Spanish empires. It only accounted for a small percentage of the Atlantic trade about 3%. Later, Portugal was attacked by the Dutch and the British therefore weakening the trade (Martin 98). The second system involved enslavement of Africans to work in the Caribbean colonies of Brazil and North America. The slave trade was triangular; the starting point was Europe goods were transported from Europe to Africa they were given to African leaders, kings and merchants in exchange of slaves, this goods included guns, medicine, ammunition and other factory manufactu red goods. The slaves were then transported to America through the Atlantic and the final part was returning of goods from America to Europe for manufacturing these goods were sugar, tobacco ,coffee, rum and moll assess. However Brazil the main importer of slaves then manufactured the goods in South America and traded directly with the Africans (Maugham 56). The trade was encouraged by many reasons but shortage of labor was the main one. This was due to discovery of the new world hence there was a lot of cheap land available and the owners definitely wanted workers because the amount of labor was too much as they practiced intensive planting, harvesting and processing (Eltis 98). The trade also developed because of the willingness of Africans to sell fellow Africans for goods from Europe. Those convicted also for wrong doing in Africa were sold to slavery as punishment since there were no prisons. Inikori (45) argues that warfare in Africa was also a major contributor of the slave trade, there were many wars taking place at that time, for example the Congo civil war Oyo and Asante empires crisis. Patterson (10) and Clarke (75) note that although Africans practiced slavery themselves, it was very different from that of the new world. Whereas in Africa slaves children were not enslaved, in America they were enslaved at birth. In Africa they were treated well and in some communities they were considered as adopted and had the permission to marry, in contrary to America where they were not allowed to marry, they were ruthlessly bitten and even branded to show ownership although they were not used for sacrifices like it happened in Africa. Countries involved actively or passively in the trade were: Senegal Denanke Kingdom, Kingdom of Fouta, Jolof Empire, and Kingdom of Khasso, Guinea-Bissau, Sierra Leone Ghana, Asante Confederacy and Mankessim of Nigeria, Benin Kingdom of Dahomey, and the Republic of Congo (Cheeves 102). About 1.2 2.4 million Africans died during the middle passage and others died soon after their arrival. The number of people who died during the capture and kidnapping of the Africans is countless but it remained higher than those actually enslaved. Most of the slaves sold were prisoners from African conflicts which the European fueled to their advantage, this trade led to the led to the destruction of individuals and cultures (Cooper, Holt Scott 120; David 84). The second part of the slave trade triangle was the most important is known as the middle passage of African people from Africa to the new world (Reynold 85). Ships departed to Africa with merchandise to trade in Africa for slaves, business took place at the coast since the Europeans feared to get into the interior because of tropical diseases. Voyages were organized by companies or groups of merchants and not individuals because they considered it as a major investment opportunity. Millions of Africans were imprisoned, enslaved, and removed from their communities, 15% of those captured died at sea during transportation that is about 2 million, and those that died as a result of slavery in America were more than 4 million African deaths (Roberts 92; Robin Law, British Academy, Royal African Company 106). In the eighteenth century about 6 million slaves were enslaved and Britain accounted for 2.5millon of them being the largest importer then. The duration of the transatlantic voyage varied depending on the weather many took six months; although as centuries went by the more the importers took less time because they were getting experienced and a voyage would even take six weeks (Williams 56; Cateau Harrington 96). Slave ships usually would have several hundreds of slaves and about thirty crew members. Men were chained together in pairs right leg to the next mans left leg in order to save space, while women and children had some little space to themselves. The slaves in transit were fed once a day on beans, corn, yams, rice or palm oil. Some slave holders would let their captives move around the ship daytime but most did not, they tied them throughout the grueling journey (Willis Miers 480). Disease and starvation were the main causes of death and amoebic dysentery and scurvy caused the majority of deaths. There were also disease out breaks like, smallpox, syphilis, measles, and other diseases spread rapidly in the in the squeezed compartments. The longer the voyage took the more slaves would die due to the harsh conditions, the quality and freshness of food disappeared every passing day. Another cause of death was depression because of the loss because of the loss of freedom, family, security , and their own humanity (Zuberi 156; Fage 198). Some slaves would take courage and resist their oppressors most of them refused to eat and this would make them sick and eventually die and hence a loss to the holder. Others would commit suicide by throwing themselves overboard, as well as a variety of many other opportunistic means. Over the centuries very many Africans committed suicide, which they preferred since they believe they would meet with their families in the afterlife. A former slave was quoted saying When we found ourselves at last taken away, death was more preferable than life, and a plan was concerted amongst us, which we might burn and blow up the ship, and to perish all together in the flames (Indrani 321). Both suicide and self-starving were prevented as much as possible by slaver holders hence they were even torture so that they would feed but some still managed to starve themselves. It was not just the slaves who suffered, the sailors themselves experienced terrible conditions and often were employed only throu gh coercion. Sailors knew and hated the slave trade, so at port towns, recruiters and tavern owners would get sailors drunk, and then offer to relieve their debt if they signed contracts with slave ships. If they did not, they would be imprisoned, sailors in prison had a hard time getting jobs outside of the slave ship industry, since most other maritime industries would not hire jail-birds, so they were forced to go to the slave ships anyway (Hogg 73; Michlethwait Wooldridge 32). This kind of treatment made many Africans depressed and left them in a severe psychological shock. This was compounded by a common fear among the Africans that they had been taken by the Europeans to be eaten, to be made into oil or gunpowder, or that their blood was to be used to dye the red flags of Spanish ships while it was their skills as agricultural laborers and their adaptability to tropical climates that were sorely needed in the agricultural economy of the European colonies. Once the slaves arrived in America or other destinations they were taken to the plantations by their specific owners while others would be sold, as property, even worse there were advertisements for slaves on sale. It was not only merchants and ship captains who were involved in this trade, but also artisans and businesspeople were involved. These included blacksmiths, bakers, goldsmiths, hatters, shoemakers, tailors and tobacconists. Doctors, judges, and midwives were also among the slave sellers. Even governors owned slaves as demonstrated by an advertisement listing a Mulatto Boy for sale from the estate of a deceased governor Collins 25). In Britain, the first private slave trader was, John Hawkins, who began the trade in 1562, he left England with 100 men and 3 ships, his first point was Sierra Leone where he captured 300 slaves and sold them in Hispaniola, on his return his ship was full of goods like such as hides, ginger and sugar the queen gained interest in him and the two became business partners, the royal family slowly got into the slave trade and on the third voyage Hawkins took along Sir Francis Drake and Sir Walter Raleigh who also developed to be great slave traders. The Duke of York also through the queen joined the trade and he used to get his initials, DY, branded onto the left buttock or breast of each of the 3000 slaves who were his and he sold them to the Caribbeans. Business was booming and in the 17th and18th century slaves population in the British Caribbean was approximately 428,000 out of a population of 500,000 (Kitson 87). Due to the growth of slave trade, the royal family decided to create a company that would control slave trade and completely abolish the private slave traders; for this reason the Royal African Company was established. The Company transported an average of 5000 slaves per year, between 1680 and1686, and received annual grants from parliament of about  £90,000. King Charles II was a major a shareholder, and hence maintained the Royal family involvement in slavery. The Royal African Company had agents in Virginia to whom slaves were delivered, they were given a seven-percent commission on sales, some of the major players in trade were John Page, Colonel Nathaniel Bacon and William Sherwood were all prominent Virginians who served as factors, agents or representatives for the Company (Miers Klein 102; Spooner 87). Private traders were not pleased with this and pardoned the court to be allowed to continue with the trade of human cattle, however in 1698 parliament approved private traders to participate in the slave trade as long as they paid a 10% duty on English goods exported to Africa. Business went bad for the company, since private traders overtook it. Many factors led to the fall of the company some of them were: the Company was not achieving a profit and had to borrow money to pay dividends, the planters were always complaining that the company was not able to supply enough slaves and the demand was overwhelming, hence they argued that the monopoly be abolished so that more slaves could be imported. Eventually, the Company, which was always heavily patronized by the Stuart monarchs, fell out of favor when James II was deposed and William and Mary came to the throne this led to the abolishment of the company because it was no longer valid. The company though continued slave trade at small scale levels until 1731; it abandoned the trade and started trafficking of ivory and gold dust. Charles Hayes (1678-1760), mathematician and chronologist was sub-governor of Royal African Company till 1752 when it was dissolved. Its successor was the African Company of Merchants (Solow Engerman 214). Liverpools Bristol and London benefited greatly from this trade, it was booming and in the 17th century Liverpools first slave ship transported 220 slaves to Barbados and sold them for  £4,239, this was less than  £20 per slave. In addition, Liverpool had 8 major slave traders who together could transport 25,820 that worked out around 50-550 per ship. However, England signed the Treaty of Utrecht with Spain in 1733, which granted England monopoly of the Spanish slave trade for 30 years as England promised at least 144,000 slaves at the rate of 4,800 slaves per year. In 1772 Lord Mansfield came to proclaim it illegal to remove any person forcibly from England, though this did not make any big change because many of the major politicians were deeply involved with slavery. For example, Richard Pennant who was Liverpools Member of Parliament from 1777 to 1790, owned 8,000 acres of sugar plantations and over 600 slaves in Jamaica. Similarly, three out of 41 councilors in Liverpool wer e slave ship owners or major investors in the slave trade and during the years of 1787 and 1807, all 20 mayors who held office in Liverpool financed or owned slave ships. The slave trade was abolished in 1808 over 100 years after the British Empire became involved in slave trading, the Trans-Atlantic slave trade was abolished within the Empire and also in the United States. However it was not until 1827 that Britain declared the slave trade illegal, and in 1833 slavery was abolished throughout Europe, the Emancipation Act went through British parliament. It still took another 11 years until 1838 before slavery was fully abolished within the British Empire. The new system however gave some  £20,000, to the planters as compensation although nothing was awarded to any former slaves. The system even made things worse for the former slaves due to the high taxes on smallholdings, high rates for licenses on small traders and contracts to shackle the laborers to the large plantations; hence they were forced to continue working in arduous conditions on the plantations. In 1844 there was labor shortage and this led to the introduction of indentured labor from another of Britains colonies, India. The Indian laborers made conditions worse for former slaves as they undermined any attempts to get better working and living conditions through strikes. By 1917, 145,000 Indians had been transported to Trinidad and 238,000 to Guyana. Jamaica was also affected with around 39,000 immigrants. The only island not affected was Barbados. It evident that the slave trade led to the growth of the populations of Europe and America while those of Africa remained stagnant. Revenues from slavery were used to build Europe and Americas economies and especially the industrial revolution was funded by the profits from agricultural activities which were done by the slaves. Scholars have argued that Britains industrial development is owed to slavery and that Britain thrives on slavery wealth. Some also have claimed that by the time it was completely abolished its importance was long gone and its abolishment was an advantage for Britain, some though think differently and argue that slavery was useful to the end. In 1787, the first anti slavery movement was formed The Society for the Abolition of the Slave Trade. The first countries to petition against slavery were Cuba and Jamaica, United States followed suit and later on Britain, Portugal and in some other parts of Europe. The Religious Society of Friends (Quakers) was the leading movement in Britain that called for abolition of slavery, the movement was joined by many and began to protest against the trade, but they were opposed by the owners of the colonial holdings. Denmark was the first country to ban slave trade through a parliamentary legislation in 1792, which took effect in 1803. In 1807, Britain banned the trade but not slavery itself, although the slave trade had become illegal, slavery remained a reality in British colonies. Wilberforce himself was convinced that the institution of slavery should be entirely abolished, but he also knew there was little political will to do so by the politicians. The Emancipation Bill was taken to parliament, it was supposed to officially abolish slave trade in Britain if passed, and it gathered support and received its final commons reading on 26 July 1833. Slavery was to be abolished planters would be well compensated; slaves on plantations were required to remain for a further six years. Those who petitioned for abolition argued that slavery made Africans to go into constant wars so that they could capture prisoners who would be sold as slaves to meet the ever growing demand for slaves. People avoided details of the middle passage issue because it would have caused great animosity and only talked about the massive deaths it caused and hence the need to an end of slavery. They also argued that despite the conditions at sea the whole ordeal of slave trade was grueling and had to stop immediately. The trade also led to the birth of the black social identifies and European superiority, which led to the slow development of the African race. They however agreed that the trade was important for the stability of the economy which was obviously not important than human rights. The debate over slavery went on for decades before abolition was finalized. Davies (86) observes that The Royal Navy, which then controlled the worlds seas, moved to stop other nations from filling Britains place in the slave trade and declared that slaving was equal to piracy and was punishable by death. They forced other nations to quit the trade to so as to protect their economy and also make their colonies uncompetitive. Other European countries were left with no option but to stop and when that happened the British navy took its supremacy to the west coast so as to secure the sea and they were stationed there for the next 50 years. Action was taken for African leaders who refused to stop slave trade activities. Antislavery treaties were signed all over Africa by 50 leaders (Boddy-Evans 10; Carlos Kruse 291). In conclusion Englands involvement in the slave trade as viewed from the National Gallery in London, slave trade was a respected occupation then and many of the London merchants who were taking almost 3/4 of the sugar imported from the West Indies lived in South London in Blackheath. It can be said Europe and America are built on funds made through the sale of Africans ancestors because they labored and toiled on the plantations to many of the banks in this countries today and so are the their families. Slavery is not over but entrenched at the heart of Londons wealth. In 1998, UNESCO designated August 23 as International Day for the Remembrance of the Slave Trade and its Abolition. Since that occurrence, a number of events surrounding the recognition of the effect of slavery on both the enslaved and enslavers have come to pass. At the World Conference against Racism, South Africa, African nations demanded a clear apology for slavery from the former slave-trading countries. Some nati ons were willing to do so but some refused such as the United Kingdom, Portugal, Spain, the Netherlands, and the United States. The countries feared that they would be asked to pay compensation. Apologies on behalf of African nations, for their role in trading their countrymen into slavery, also remain an open. On November 27, 2006, British Prime Minister Tony Blair made a partial apology for Britains role in the African slavery trade. However, African rights activists denounced it as empty rhetoric and it did not address the issue like it should. The apology was just mere talk and they say he should have not even said it. On August 24, 2007, Ken Livingstone (then Mayor of London) apologized publicly for Londons role in the slave trade. You can look across there to see the institutions that still have the benefit of the wealth they created from slavery, he said pointing towards the financial district, before breaking down in tears. He said it was still haunted by the memories of sla very. Jesse Jackson praised Mayor Livingstone, and added that reparations should be made. On January 30, 2006, Jacques Chirac (the then French President) said that 10 May would henceforth be a national day of remembrance for the victims of slavery in France, and when marking the day in 2001 when France passed a law recognizing slavery as a crime against humanity. On July 30, 2008, the United States House of Representatives passed a resolution apologizing for American slavery and subsequent discriminatory laws. The language included a reference to the fundamental injustice, cruelty, brutality and inhumanity of slavery and segregation (Howard 21).

socrates :: essays research papers

Socrates Paper   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The duty between a citizen and the law and vice versa has been a challenging question that many individuals have been trying to answer for centuries. Throughout history many philosophers, historians, writers etc. have tried and to some extent in their best opinion come up with an answer. Plato, who through Socratic dialogues of the human soul provides a window for understanding the nature of the state, made one such attempt.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In his famous dialogue, the Apology, which is a defense of the charges made on Socrates, he compares himself to a gadfly, â€Å"†¦. as upon a great noble horse which was somewhat sluggish because of its size and needed to be stirred up by a kind of gadfly.† (Apology 30e) In this passage the Athenian state is the lazy horse, which is liable to drift into a deep sleep, but through his influence- irritating as it may be to some- it can be wakened into a state with productive and virtuous action. As the reader can see that the citizen also has to help the State by teaching individuals what is right and wrong. If either the State or the citizens do not do their job then it is the duty of the other to make aware of them and wake them up from this temporary sleep.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  After the trial of the Socrates where he was found guilty and sentenced to death comes another great work of Plato, the Crito, where Socrates friend Crito has come to the prison cell to persuade him to run away and not drink the poison. In this dialogue Socrates provides two very good analogies on the relationship between the State and the citizens.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The first one is that there is a â€Å"social contract† between the citizens and the Law. This contract has been validated since the birth of an individual. Socrates claims that by running away and not facing the verdict of the court Socrates is to breach the contract He further goes on to explain that he has been happy with the Athenian way of life up till now and breaking the contract now would make him an outlaw who would not be welcome in any other civilized state for the rest of his life.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  One of many moral views philosophers hold is to obey your parents as they have given birth to you and raised you. socrates :: essays research papers Socrates Paper   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The duty between a citizen and the law and vice versa has been a challenging question that many individuals have been trying to answer for centuries. Throughout history many philosophers, historians, writers etc. have tried and to some extent in their best opinion come up with an answer. Plato, who through Socratic dialogues of the human soul provides a window for understanding the nature of the state, made one such attempt.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In his famous dialogue, the Apology, which is a defense of the charges made on Socrates, he compares himself to a gadfly, â€Å"†¦. as upon a great noble horse which was somewhat sluggish because of its size and needed to be stirred up by a kind of gadfly.† (Apology 30e) In this passage the Athenian state is the lazy horse, which is liable to drift into a deep sleep, but through his influence- irritating as it may be to some- it can be wakened into a state with productive and virtuous action. As the reader can see that the citizen also has to help the State by teaching individuals what is right and wrong. If either the State or the citizens do not do their job then it is the duty of the other to make aware of them and wake them up from this temporary sleep.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  After the trial of the Socrates where he was found guilty and sentenced to death comes another great work of Plato, the Crito, where Socrates friend Crito has come to the prison cell to persuade him to run away and not drink the poison. In this dialogue Socrates provides two very good analogies on the relationship between the State and the citizens.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The first one is that there is a â€Å"social contract† between the citizens and the Law. This contract has been validated since the birth of an individual. Socrates claims that by running away and not facing the verdict of the court Socrates is to breach the contract He further goes on to explain that he has been happy with the Athenian way of life up till now and breaking the contract now would make him an outlaw who would not be welcome in any other civilized state for the rest of his life.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  One of many moral views philosophers hold is to obey your parents as they have given birth to you and raised you.

Movement Education Essay example -- Health

â€Å"Movement is as natural and essential to young children’s lives as loving care, rest and nutrition. Movement provides children with an outlet for expression, creativity, and discovery. Through movement, children learn about themselves, their environment, and others. Movement is a stimulus for physical growth and development. The joy of movement is a child’s expression of an emotional need fulfilled.† (Curtis) The movement education teaching model, its historical development, its concepts and core activities will be discussed in this essay. Furthermore, the general objectives of movement education, the detailed objectives within physical education programs and the applicable teaching methods will be outlined and explained. The history of movement education goes as far back as the 1800s. Many people articulated ideas and theories about movement. Three of the most influential people are Francois Delsarte, Liselott Diem, and Rudolph von Laban. Laban is considered by most the true pioneer of movement education. (Karen Weiller Abels) In the early 1900s Laban identified the four cornerstones of movement: weight, space, time, and flow. In the late 70s and early 80s, Stanley, Logsdon and his colleagues distinguished the four major movement concepts, based on Labans discoveries. Stanley, Logsdon and his colleagues classified body, space, effort, and relationship. Parallel to the discovery of the movement concepts, new trends and new teaching models emerged in physical education programs. Movement education faded from the physical education programs because other teaching models became popular and because movement education is an extremely complex teaching model. Today, movement education has returned a nd has planted it... ...sical Education, Recreation and Dance. Movement Education for preschool children. Reston: AAHPERD, 1980. Print. Curtis, Sandra R. The joy of movement in early childhood. New York: Teachers College Press, 1982. Print. George Graham, Shirley Ann Holt/Hale, Melissa Parker. Children Moving, A Reflective Approach to Teaching Physical Education. Vol. 8th Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2012. Text. 28 March 2012. Jennifer Wall, Nancy Murray. Children & Movement, Physical Education in the Elementary School. Dubuque: WCB Brown & Benchmark, 1990. Print. Karen Weiller Abels, Jennifer M. Bridges. Teaching Movement Education, Foundation for Active Lifestyles. Human Kinetics, 2010. Print. 16 March 2012. Robert P. Pangrazi, Victor P. Dauer. Movement in Early Childhood and Primary Education. Minneapolis: Burgess Publishing Company, 1981. Print. 16 March 2012.

Assessment of the Necessity of the Nuclear Proliferation Treaty

Perceptions regarding nuclear weapons presents a contradiction in terms of the existence of a â€Å"peaceful nuclear past and a fearful nuclear future† (Sagan 66). Such a contradiction exists in terms of our current understanding regarding nuclear weapons and deterrence. Consider for example that during the Cold War period, nuclear weapons were widely believed to be one of the most important factors in maintaining the peace between the United States and the Soviet Union (Cimbali 224). Currently, on the other hand, it is widely believed that enabling the continuing spread and development of nuclear weapons will only increase the risk of the development of a nuclear war. This is based upon the assumption that rival countries that are considered nuclear powers are unlikely to maintain stable deterrence. Due to this concern regarding the prevention of such an event, the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty was formulated during 1968. The treaty imposed an international limitation to the spread of nuclear weapons. It is based upon three main tenets: non-proliferation of nuclear weapons, disarmament of nuclear weapons, and the peaceful use of nuclear energy. What follows is an analysis of the nuclear proliferation argument. As was stated above, the main rationale for the Nuclear Proliferation Treaty (NPT) was the prevention of nuclear wars caused by the unstable deterrence between nuclear weapons states. According to the Canadian Foreign Minister Lloyd Axworthy, the agreement is based upon international mechanisms that operate within the foundations of international laws and norms. Anxworthy further states that the NPT opts â€Å"to promote and achieve a world without nuclear weapons† hence a world without a nuclear war impending in its historical future (1). As opposed to this, it has been argued by political scientists that if the main rationale for the treaty was the prevention of nuclear wars, then the treaty by prohibiting the proliferation of nuclear weapons defied itself in so far as enabling the proliferation of nuclear weapons ensures the prevention of nuclear wars. According to Kenneth Waltz, â€Å"nuclear weapons have been given a bad name† (731). Waltz argues that it is fallacious to assume that since nuclear weapons may cause catastrophic nuclear exchanges, nuclear wars will thereby cause global destruction. Waltz argues that nuclear weapons will enable the development of stability and peace since â€Å"a nation will be deterred from attacking if it believes that there is a possibility that its adversary will retaliate† (734). It is important to consider that Waltz’s claim is based upon the assumption that major wars amongst states occur as a result of the estimation of zero or low retaliation costs of a state from another state. In lieu of this, it is thereby possible to conclude that allowing the proliferation of nuclear weapons lessens the possibility of the development of nuclear wars since it ensures that countries will consider the high amount of risk involved in launching a nuclear attack towards a state with similar military capacities. In lieu of this, I would like to conclude that it is indeed true that the choice between a more peaceful and co-operative versus a war-ridden and hostile world is highly dependent or critically dependent on the future of nuclear weapons however, it does not necessarily necessitate the prevention of their further spread. Works Cited Cimbali, Stephen.   The Dead Volcano: The Background and Effects of Nuclear War Complacency.   Portsmouth, NH: Praeger/Greenwood, 2002 Halard, Muller, David Fischer, and Wolfgang Kotter.   Nuclear Non-Proliferation and Global Order.   Oxford: Oxford Univ. P., 1994. Waltz, Kenneth.   â€Å"Nuclear Myths and Political Realities.†Ã‚   American Political Science Reviews 84. 3 (September 1990).